The Evolution Of Rhetoric In The Electronic Age

The Evolution Of Rhetoric In The Electronic Age The reason for this research paper is to discuss the future rhetoric of our new Electronic Generation. Rhetoric is an art of public speaking and, in our day and age, electronics play a major part. This paper will explain the rhetorical aspects of this potential transformation into an all electronic world. The information of this paper will explain the history of rhetoric and how we got to where we are today. It will also speak of some the major philosophers about this change in our new generation. Rhetoric is defined as the art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. From ancient Greece to the late nineteenth century, it was an essential part of Western education to teach public speakers and writers to persuade listeners to action with arguments. At the turn of the 20th century, there was a profound interest of rhetorical study began to grow in the organization of departments of rhetoric and speech at colleges and universities, as well as the development of national and international professional organizations. Some modern theorists believe that it was important to restore the interest of the study of rhetoric because of the renewed importance of language and persuasion in the progressively reconciled environment of the twentieth century and through the twenty-first century, with the media spotlight on the wide difference s and analyses of political rhetoric and its result s. With the expansion of marketing and of mass media such as photography, telegraphy, ra dio, and film, rhetoric is being more notably conveyed into peoples lives. In spite of its legacy as a moral way for persuasion, rhetoric has come to take on negative undertones. Through the years, generations have forgotten whats the real meaning of rhetoric is and has somehow implicate that this word is deceptive and untrustworthy. Today, rhetoric is greatly utilized by mass media in a derogatory manner, particularly when associated to public policies and politicians. Rhetoric as a systematic study was developed by a group of orators, educators, and advocates called Sophists. In the book, The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction by James Herrick, he states, Sophists employed paradoxes to shock their audiences, but also by this means to provoke debate and inquiry (Herrick, 2009). The Sophists outlook on rhetoric may very well have been the spark that ignited todays global misunderstanding on the meaning behind rhetoric. Sophists viewed rhetoric as a means that could unite pleasure with government. Sophists believed that words had the ability to medicate the audience. Although during this time when rhetoric was a skill with an increasingly expressive demand, it began to alter to a negative nuance as Platos criticisms grew more popular. The most primitive paradigm of rhetoric as a derogatory word can be followed back to Plato and his opinions about the Sophists. As one of Socrates renowned students, Plato often portrayed the Sophists as highly skillful writers who made the most of misleading language methods to persuade and influence audiences. Platos assumption on Sophism, also reiterated through the writings of Isocrates, was based on the gluttony, deception and the general lack of trust and apprehension for justice. Sophists could manipulate speech to make the worse situation appear better. The term Sophism continues to maintain the negative reputation in todays society. In Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured, author Susan Jarratt defines sophism as a derogatory term for a carefully crafted yet false argument aimed at deceiving someone (Jarratt, 1998). Sophism is also used today to describe rhetorical circumstances in which emotional demands may be emphasized over logical demands. Sophism and rhetoric have shared these negative connections into our modern era. As Christianity began to extend in the Middle Ages after the fall of the Roman Empire, societies started to connect rhetoric as expressive and fancy, but it was short of any knowledge or general idea. Due to the Church not believing expressiveness was an important aspect to communication and speech, rhetoric was diminished and viewed depreciatively. By the sixteenth century, rhetorics reputation had been revitalized, but some prominent scholars continued to pass judgment on rhetoric. Reformer Peter Ramus questioned rhetoric by stating that rhetoric was mainly a kind of verbal enhancement and as a result of little consequence. As Ramus praised dialectic and called rhetoric into question, rhetoric lost its theoretical influence, and was again viewed as nothing more than a stylistic, pessimistic speech tool. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determined to fall solely under the heading of dialectic, while style, delivery, and memory were all that stayed for rhetoric. In The Electronic Word: Technology, Democracy, and Arts written by Richard Lanham, he expresses that Ramus separated thought from language by developing a replica of education in which reason breaks free of speech (Lanham, 1993, pp. 157-158). Language bec ame an impartial tool for conveying the findings of other disciplines, and was no longer viewed as the basis of an art form that has been mastered by an educated person for its own sake. Another major contributor to the development of Western thinking about rhetoric is the great Greek philosopher, Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato who famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that is still repays careful study today. One of the most significant contributions of Aristotles approach was that he saw rhetoric as one of the three basic essentials of philosophy, in conjunction with logic and dialectic. In the opening words of Rhetoric authored by Aristotle, he asserts that rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic (Aristotle Roberts, 1954, p. 30). Logic, according to Aristotle, is the area of philosophy concerned with ways of thinking to reach scientific assurance while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with possibility and therefore is the parts of philosophy best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is an instrument for theoretical debate; it is a way for listeners to assess credible knowledge with the intention of learning. Rhetoric is an instrument for sensible debate; it is a way for convincing a common group of listeners using reliable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric together create a relationship for a method of persuasion derived from knowledge rather than playing on emotion. Today, modern scholars emphasize why rhetoric has taken on a derogatory connotation. They presume that there is a tendency to forget rhetorics past, which has damaged democracy by labeling all political speech as trickery, as well as unsuccessfully teaching the general public to vitally understand and make use of good speech. Richard Lanham (Lanham, 1993, pp. 243-246) disputed that the model of electronic words and texts has a natural potential to encourage democratic discourse and human thinking. Nevertheless, the source for Lanhams optimistic view of the digital age a perception that electronic textually makes no invidious distinctions between high and low culture, commercial and pure usage, talented or chance creation, visual or auditory stimulus, iconic or alphabetic information (Lanham, 1993, pp. 14) is besieged by some basic opposition which not only imply but reinforce all these oppositions. As Richard Lanham documented in his book, The Electronic Word, the presentation of w ords through the static textual display of print is quickly being replaced by the more fluid textual forms of the computer screen, which are radically altering our existing definitions of literacy. Lanham believes these new textual forms such as e-mail, network exchanges, and hypertext are changing our intellectual perception back to the root source of Western rhetoric: We can . . . think of electronic prose as moving back toward the world of oral rhetoric, where gestural symmetries were permitted and sound was omnipresent. Any prose text, by the very nature of the denial/expression tensions that create and animate it, oscillates back and forth between literate self-denial and oral permissiveness, but electronic text does so much more self-consciously, simply by the volatile nature of the written surface. A volatile surface invites us to intensify rather than subdue this oscillation, make it more rather than less self-conscious (Lanham, 1993). In addition, while some may feel the electronic explosion of inert textual structures serves to mark the death of the Western education, as demonstrated in the linear structures of print, Lanham believes it completes fairly the opposite and brings literacy more similar to another oscillation that Western thinking has always displayed. Reflecting the internal tension of elitism versus populism inherent in distinct ludic and resistance versions of postmodern theory, Lanhams digital rhetoric exemplifies an unsure oscillation between critical and aesthetic approaches to hypertext on one hand, and a more popular democratic appreciation of electronic media, the sub-cultural intertextuality of global culture, and hypermedia on the other. As Lanham exemplifies many of the hypermedia theorists and critics retained their privileged literary and critical assumptions, undermining claimed connections to the popular cultural extensions of electronic media. This is possibly because of the opposing and subjective ways in which an all-purpose hypermedia model alternates between focusing on designed interactive descriptions and the act of reading or reception as an essentially unintentional process, and (2) decreases human language and communication generally to the expressions of distinct images and information consequently also supporting an underlying conflict between print-age examples of language-use and the new and ever-present popular electronic culture. The integration of hypertext concept into a general hypermedia framework of electronic literacy is more than only a matter of describing hypermedia as hypertext extended to include electronic multimedia effects such as digitized sound and graphics. Postmodern literary models of meaning as a contingent product and play of open-ended narratives, language games, and reader-response clearly lent themselves to theorizing about hypertext. Such privileged models of textuality, reception, and aesthetic process or objects were implicitly at odds with the semiotic move to go from the subtle and intricate textual allusions of open-ended narratives mediated as verbal language-use to include the media of electronic popular culture in terms of language reduced to and even replaced by electronic imagery obsessed with the transitory fixations of human memory and desi re. The residual print assumptions of a convergence between the hypermedia model of electronic literacy and postmodern critical theories or practices is perhaps most effectively analyzed in terms of how points out, hypertext encourages both writers and readers to confront and work consciously and concretely with deconstruction, intertextuality, the decentering of the author, and the readers complicity with the construction of the text. In other words, the idea of hypertext effectively reinforces the postmodernist theories of such theorists as Barthes, Derrida, and Baudrillard that natural languages and other systems of representationespecially those involving electronic visual mediaare autonomous in relation to the diverse and contingent contexts of individual language users, specific language events, and discrete forms of verbal or visual representation. The twentieth century is perhaps the most exhilarating period in which to study rhetoric since the Middle Age. This has come about with the beginning of what is generally referred to as the New Rhetoric; the rediscovery of rhetorics epistemological significance and the critical role of persuasion and argument to our everyday lives. It is impossible to name all the causes for this new-found importance or all the contributors to the New Rhetoric, but among the most influential we must certainly consider I.A. Richards whose work on metaphor associated rhetoric to literary studies, Chaim Perelman, whose book The New Rhetoric is now a classic, Steven Toulmin, best known for his inquiries of argument, and possibly the most influential rhetorician of our era, Kenneth Burke. In teaching in the Middle Ages and years before, we have determined that rhetoric was a tool to teach students how to write good essays and, in other areas, it was a tool for persuasion. Rhetoric is widely used in business, politics, and technical writing. For example, the structure and style of letters, memos, speeches, and other kinds of documents follow the rhetorical standards. The old rhetoric dealt primarily with the structure and content of an essay or presentation. With New Rhetoric, rhetoric is given new limits. It now includes philosophy and sociology. It is no longer how to inscribe a good essay or speak a good speech, but how well we recognize communication and its influences on our lives. With the discovery of the World Wide Web (WWW), rhetoric had received a new, powerful field of its purpose. For the most part, rhetorical principles reveal its power in different kinds of Web projects. The five parts of the classical notion invention, arrangement, memory, delivery, and styleare one way we might start mediating about how to apply rhetorical ideas to writings in the twenty-first century and beyond. After all, literacy has undergone many changes in the pastfrom orality, to writing, to printand it will likely undergo many more, in ways we cannot even now imagine. We need to think about how computers and computer writing will impact the future of rhetoric, of composition and composition classes, and of literacy itself. Making hypertext documents on the WWW (World Wide Web) offers a wide range of freedom. The most astonishing difference in an electronic document is the skills to provide fairly instant access to the resources you gather during the invention process. To fully exploit the capabilities of hypertext, you should offer hypertext links that lead directly to the material you use in supporting your claims. Providing links to this material involves the audience in the invention process; your audience can have access to your primary materials and verify the validity of your evidence. Locating supporting information is greatly facilitated by search engines that can explore the Web for you, tracking down useful and relevant evidence to support your own presentations. In addition, many Web sites grant permission to use their digitized images. In an electronic document, there is no easy distinction between a beginning, middle, and an end. Determining a suitable arrangement for your electronic document depends on your creativity. Innovative arrangements are largely a matter of style can have powerful emotional appeal for an audience. Gorgias recognized the persuasive power of atypical uses of language, for changes in the usual order and meaning affected the audience. Today in the electronic age, Gorgias insights still remains true, but of course their submissions have expanded. Writing documents for the WWW creates an entirely new world, or cyberspace, one wide open to new ways of expression, and maybe meaning. An image, like a figure of speech can communicate meaning and provide your rhetorical principle. The same can be said for color. Color, like a trope, covers your meaning, provides your reason or at least it can. Of course, and image, and color has to provide a purpose but it must be suitable to the situation. Memory is fourth of the ancient standard of rhetoric. In the ancient law courts and assemblies, men were often called upon to deliver speeches without the help of written comments. The Greeks and Romans developed intricate memory systems that allowed them to give speeches precisely as it was written. Memory on the Web means some entirely different. Most people take it to mean the ways that readers can remember where they are and where they have been while they surf the net. In the days when text was written only to be conveyed verbally, the ability to persuasively delivery of a speech was one of the premier talents. Delivery is obviously related to the other standards, especially style, because your usefulness as an orator of text varying in large parts on the method of delivery that you chooses. In the hypertext world, delivery takes on some new obstacles. Were no longer certain who will be listening to our speech, nor are we positive that theyll even hear it the same way. The documents we generate are read by browsers, which decipher the HTML code for presenting on the monitor. Because each of these browsers maintains very different features, successful delivery is contingent on writing documents that predict the difference among browsers. Rhetoric, this art of persuasion, totally distorted our insight of the truth. Everything depends on the ability of speaker or writer to affectively captivate the audience using his or her credibility, detailed style, and compelling arguments. Anything can be shown as the truth. Due to this capability to alter anything to the truth the Rhetoric became an indispensable tool in the business communication. How to persuade people to purchase goods, services, ideasanything, that business word generates? How to encourage them that this is a necessity or this is the truth? It cannot be accomplished without rhetoric. The rhetorical theories had been altered by our highly technological age, but they did not modify in their real meaning. There is the truth that subsist in rhetoricits values itself. Rhetoric has not lost its inability in 21st century, but vice versa, we can observe that rhetorical theories reveal itself in any document individually from technology that was used for its establishing. On the one handRhetorical theories are used in todays writing, publishing, and electronic documents as a way of persuasion. On the other handrhetoric is no longer an essential humanist study of structure and content but a study on how and why we communicate and what we can learn from the methods of communication.

Benefits of Thermo-chemical Networks

Benefits of Thermo-chemical Networks Application cases and economic benefits of thermo-chemical networks ABSTRACT Thermo-chemical potential of absorption and desorption has high potential to capture and use residual heat at low temperature ranges. Due to loss-free transport and storage of the captured energy potential, long-distance transport and medium-term storage offer interesting potentials to utilize residual heat. Therefore, the aim of the EU H2020 project H-DisNet is to develop networks similar to district heating networks using thermo-chemical fluids (TCF) instead of water. The paper will give an introduction to the technology that can provide heating, cooling and drying services in one network and discuss its economics. First, use cases describe promising application scenarios. Requirements are derived from the use cases, first, for the novel technology and, second, the application situations, i.e. the buildings or industrial processes, in which the services are applied. This includes temperature and humidity requirements as well as further conditions of a useful application. Depending on the services requirements, features of the thermo-chemical technology, such as the used TCF, will be determined so that the thermo-chemical technology is able to satisfy the service requirements. Operation modes will be presented the show, how in specific use cases the technology would work. An outline of the operation of a network will be presented. Second, for an economic assessment, conventional existing solutions for the services, for which thermo-chemical technology is proposed, will be described. These conventional technologies form the background for an economic comparison. The aim of the economic comparison is to show the benefits of the thermo-chemical technology for the key stakeholders involved in such a network. The aim is to provide evidence that the thermo-chemical network technology is marketable. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, an always increasing attention has been placed on reducing the energy consumption used for heating, cooling and drying with a resulting abatement in the CO2 production. As a matter of fact, a massive quantity of fossil fuel is used as primary energy source for air-conditioning and industrial operations causing a constant conversion to C02 that is swiftly rising and expediting the global climate change. It has been calculated that the energy depleted for heating and cooling of buildings (residential or in the service sector) and industrial processes accounts for 50% of the EUs annual energy consumption [1]. This is mostly due to the fact that almost half of the EUs buildings are old and lack in efficiency, renewable energy is narrowly used in these sectors and a huge amount of heat produced by industrial processes is dissipated into the atmosphere or into water, missing the opportunity for its recovery. Through the development of an optimized, more efficient and less cost-consuming utilization of the energy sources, it will be possible to achieve a decrease in the energy imports, obtaining a diminution in the costs and, at the same time, an environmental benefit, represented by a reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases. District heating is one of the possible technologies in the direction of this purpose because it remarkably concurs to a better use of the energy sources, particularly the renewable energies. Nevertheless, this technology presents several drawbacks, such as the temperature required that can preclude the utilization of some technologies that work with lower temperatures, the remarkable heat losses occurring during the transportation in pipelines and the need for integration with storage systems in order to obtain the match between the demand and the sources in time and location. Therefore, this paper will be addressed to the description of Intelligent Hybrid Thermo-Chemical District Networks, an innovative type of district network based on the employment of thermo-chemical fluids (TCFs) instead of water as energy storage medium. Through this technology it will be feasible to obtain an energy-efficient exploitation of the resources, particularly the unemployed low-grade industrial heat and thermal renewable, leading to the achievement of a sustainable energy system. Moreover, by the usage of liquid desiccant as TCF in order to obtain a loss-free long-distance transport and a medium-term storage it will be possible to obtain significant cost reductions, making this technology absolutely interesting for citizens, workers and industry. The paper starts in Section 2 with a description of the liquid desiccant technology in order to understand the ability of this system for heating and cooling applications. Section 3 reports the characteristics and the main advantages arising from the integration of the TCF with the district network. Section 4 detects the possible business models interested in the utilization of the Hybrid District Network. The last two section of the paper address the subject from an economic point of view, identifying the cost factors for this kind of system (Section 5) and the associated economic savings related to the different applications (Section 6). LIQUID DESICCANT TECHNOLOGY The current research on Hybrid District Networks is related to the requirement of obtaining a district network which allows the connection with consumers at a greater distance, such as for the heating and cooling of residential and service buildings that are usually located far from industrial plants. In fact, the temperature level of waste heat and renewable energy is generally too low, bringing to higher volumes that are responsible for increased energy leaks and higher costs, related to a higher expense for the pipelines. In this direction, it has to be seen the always growing interest in absorption and reversible thermo-chemical processes for district heating. The closed district network system is a well-developed technology that employs absorption heat pumps and chillers to supply heating and cooling for residential and service buildings (!!REPETITION). However, this technology does not allow to profit from industrial waste energy or renewable energy that are located in a remote position respect to the service, besides not allowing a time shift between the source and the demand side. For this reason, an innovative open system district heating system, based on the employment of liquid desiccant as the thermo-chemical transporter of energy, which allows to split the regeneration and absorption side and to locate them in different places, is under study. Desiccant-based TCFs have the potential to provide simultaneous and multiple on-site functions and services, such as heating, cooling, de/re-humidification, energy storage and energy transport. Liquid desiccants exploit the hygroscopic properties of a salt (MgCl2, CaCl2, LiBr, LiCl etc.) solution for the removal of the moisture from the ambient outdoor air, until the attainment of a situation of equilibrium of its vapour pressure with that of the incoming air. For this reason, the dehumidification capacity of the desiccant can be evaluated through its equilibrium vapour pressure. For example, an industrial process waste-heat driven air-conditioning system is shown in Fig.X in a counter-flow packed bed configuration. FIG. The strong TCF-solution (i.e. TCF-rich relative to water), typically a desiccant, is sprayed at the top of the absorber, ambient air (or gas) enters the absorber at the bottom and transfers its moisture to the TCF. As some heat is liberated, the TCF solution temperature rises and hence the solution vapour pressure. The heat exchange process typically takes place over a packed bed/spray tower or gravity driven wetted wall column designed with the minimum pressure drop (Jain et al., 2007) with output humidity controlled by the temperature and concentration of the TCF solution. The dehumidified air exits at the top of the absorber and can be used to meet plant specific energy demands. The warm but now diluted TCF solution leaves the bottom of the absorber and it is pumped for regeneration. The regeneration process has typically the same configuration as the absorber and it is driven by the incoming industrial process waste heat gas stream; the now diluted TCF is sprayed over this stream and water in the TCF solution evaporates, reducing the gas temperature and increasing its humidity. The now strong TCF solution is pumped back to the absorber to restart the air-conditioning process. Industrial manufacturing plants typically have multiple demands for energy in their locality; the previously described system can exploit the low-grade process waste heat to supplement (or even replace) local demands: (1) Industrial Drying, because the ambient air (or other gases) can be dried and then cooled for utilisation elsewhere on site; (2) Heating and/or Humidification, since the ambient air is heated as it passes through the absorber, which yields a warmer and more humid gas stream that can be used locally with corresponding savings in energy demands; (3) Cooling, by utilising the dry air as the an input into an evaporative cooling system, an additional re-humidification stage can be used to produce a cooling effect and thus to supplement local air-conditioning loads; and (4) Loss-Free Energy Storage, since through the transformation of heat to TCF potential is possible to transport and store heat and TCF potential into the hybrid district network with almost total lack of e nergy loss. As there is significant potential for thermal energy storage thus meeting/offsetting hourly, daily and seasonal energy supply/demand. THERMO-CHEMICAL NETWORK TECHNOLOGY The aim of a Hybrid Thermo-Chemical District Network is to broaden the use of district networks through the realization of a multifunctional optimized system, able to simultaneously fulfill heating, cooling and drying operations and also to be integrated with already existing thermal district networks, leading to the achievement of a more sustainable process. Through the recovery of industrial waste heat and the exploitation of low temperature energy sources (e.g. renewables, such as solar thermal or geothermal) is possible to obtain via the regeneration process a TCF with high energy in the state of TCF-concentrate that is used as a thermo-chemical energy storage medium. This is one of the peculiar advantages of the innovative district network because the thermo-chemical energy storage in the concentrate liquid desiccant is roughly losses, offering the opportunity to enhance the storage term between hours and days, which enables to fill the mismatch in the schedule between available heat and demand, to heighten the transport distance of the heat, that can be long up to 50 km [X] with pipelines characterised by a reduced or absent insulation with a resulting reduction in costs. This feature, together with the increased energy density of the TCF-concentrated (higher than the water, employed in the conventional district heating system) will lead to the obtaining of a very promising system from an economic point of view. Moreover, the characteristics of transport and cheapness of this cutting-edge technology enable to serve also the regions with lower heat demand. Another advantage is that the salts used in the solution as liquid desiccants in an open district network system (MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2, LiBr, LiCl, Ca(NO3)2, TEG) are in most of the cases cheap and, for the characteristics of open system, they have to be as much as possible non-toxic and environmental harmless. Particularly, the MgCl2 (produced as by-product from sea-water processing) and the CaCl2 (produced from industrial processes) result to be extremely cheap and hence economically viable. The environmental benefit represented by the reduction in the primary energy consumption and in the CO2 production is another key property of this system. Furthermore, the simpler pipeline infrastructure, which is characterised by the utilization of recyclable plastic pipes without any anti-frost protection, will allow to significantly reduce the exploitation of raw materials. Lastly, the liquid desiccants present hygiene properties that can ensure humidity control of the process air, leading to an amelioration of the indoor comfort and forestalling the maturation of mould fungus. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF HYBRID DISTRICT NETWORKS The attainment of benefits in terms of financial, technological and environmental features are the main conditions for the spread of the thermo-chemical district network. The aim is to achieve profitability and efficiency for both suppliers and consumers, converting costs into revenues. The implementation of this strategy could lead several benefits to different classes: (1) Citizens could profit from a monthly and yearly cost reduction for energy-effective heating and cooling calculated to be ranging from â‚ ¬ 1500-2000 to â‚ ¬ 300-500 [X], simultaneously achieving a better indoor comfort, ensured by the humidity control of the thermo-chemical system. Moreover, this could lead to a greater stabilization of the energy costs, because the network is mostly based on the usage of renewable energies, which cost is more predictable respect to fossil fuels, characterised by a highly volatile price. (2) Industry could also be enormously interested in the employment of district thermo-chemical networks to extent of reducing its energy costs by 4-10% with investments characterised by a payback period lower than 5 years [X] and of obtaining a sustainable process, able to decrease its energy consumption. Concurrently, this technology could lead to a more environmental har mless process with reductions in the CO2 and air pollution, contributing to a significant improvement in the related health problems. In order to estimate the economic potential of the technology an analysis based on the study of business cases involved on the employment of waste heat has been taken as the point of reference [x]. The main four identified sectors are: (1) Built Environment Business To Customer (B2C); for this business model, the customer base are new buildings and offices together with   the renewal of utility buildings (mostly property of the municipalities), apartments (usually possessed by housing corporations) and offices. Another possibility is the utilization of TCFs into an already existing hybrid network in order to improve its energy efficiency. Municipalities and housing corporations have a fundamental role in this business model because in most of the cases they have a previously established relationship with the formerly defined customers. To extent of achieving the success of the project is indispensable that both of the parts, public party and individuals, have an interest in saving energy and this is ensured by an equal split of the profit between the parts.   (2) Built Environment Business To Business (B2B);

Macbeth the Tragic Hero Essay -- essays research papers

Macbeth could justly be classified a â€Å"Tragic Hero† as his tragic story fills out the defined criteria for a tragic hero. Macbeth holds a significant social status, reveals essential truths about humanity through his suffering, has tragically wasted talent, contains a â€Å"tragic flaw† leading to his downfall and finally he finds some relief in his death. Macbeth, throughout this play, has held a substantial amount of power in society. Firstly he begins as the Thane of Glamis before becoming the Thane of Cawdor and finally King of Scotland. His death greatly affected everyone in Scotland, both those who stood by him and those who opposed and finally killed him. *****quotes from both sides***** Macbeth’s downfall would have meant that finally the rightful king was on the throne of Scotland and this would have been significant for the Scottish people of all socio-economic classes. The suffering of Macbeth throughout the play is a disconsolate process. Throughout the stages of his grievous downfall essential truths about humanity are dubiously displayed. Macbeth’s ordeal reveals the ev...

Karl Marx :: essays research papers fc

Karl Heinrich Marx was born on May 5, 1818, in the city of Trier in Prussia, now, Germany. He was one of seven children of Jewish parents. His mother, Henrietta, was originally from Holland and never became a German at heart. Shortly before Marx was born, his father converted the family to Christianity and Karl was baptized at the age of six. In High School, Karl stood out amongst the other students. He seemed to be a devoted Christian. In 1835, he attended the University of Bonn but left after only a year and enrolled in the University of Berlin to study law and philosophy. While at Berlin, Marx joined the young Hegelians, a group organized by Hegal, a philosophy teacher. During this time, he “ came to believe that all the various sciences and philosophies were part of one overarching, which, when completed, would give a true and total picture of the universe and man.'; (Communist Manifesto, Marx (Francis B. Randal), page 15)In October of 1842, Marx became the editor of the pa per Rheinische Zeitung, and as editor, wrote editorials on socio-economic issues such as poverty, etc. He soon made editor-in-chief, but was quickly forced to step down due to his radical writings and social views. In 1843, he married Jenny Von Westphalen. In 1844, Marx met the man who would change his life forever. Both Engles and Marx had gone through the German Philosophic school and had come to the same conclusions but while Marx arrived at an understanding of the struggles an demands of the age basis of the French Revolution, Engles did so on the basis of English industry. (The Story of his Life, Mehring, page 93) In 1845, he left for Brussels, Belgium. It’s during these years that Marx is said to have really developed his views and his intellectual standing. In 1848, the Communist Manifesto or Manifest der Kommunistischen Parten was published in London. Marx and Engles wrote this book and its purpose was outlining ten measures toward Communism. In this, Marx predicts a confrontation between the working class and the higher class, the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. It also discusses the importance of Communism, and the differences between his ideas and other parties’. The document ends in bold capital letters “WORKINGMEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!';“The days of November 1850 fall almost exactly in the middle of Marx’s liffe and they represent, not only externally, an important turning point in his life’s work.

Ethical Decision Making and Behavior

7 Ethical Decision Making and Behavior As we practice resolving dilemmas we find ethics to be less a goal than a pathway, less a destination than a trip, less an inoculation than a process. —Ethicist Rushworth Kidder WHAT’S AHEAD This chapter surveys the components of ethical behavior—moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character—and introduces systematic approaches to ethical problem solving. We’ll take a look at four decision-making formats: Kidder’s ethical checkpoints, the SAD formula, Nash’s 12 questions, and the case study method.After presenting each approach, I’ll discuss its relative advantages and disadvantages. U nderstanding how we make and follow through on ethical decisions is the first step to making better choices; taking a systematic approach is the second. We’ll explore both of these steps in this chapter. After examining the ethical decision-making process, we’ll see ho w guidelines or formats can guide our ethical deliberations. 235 236——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Components of Moral Action There are a number of models of ethical decision making and action.For example, business ethics educators Charles Powers and David Vogel identify six factors or elements that underlie moral reasoning and behavior and that are particularly relevant in organizational settings. 1 The first is moral imagination, the recognition that even routine choices and relationships have an ethical dimension. The second is moral identification and ordering, which, as the name suggests, refers to the ability to identify important issues, determine priorities, and sort out competing values.The third factor is moral evaluation, or using analytical skills to evaluate options. The fourth element is tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity, which arises when managers disagree about values and courses of action. The fifth is the ability to integrate m anagerial competence with moral competence. This integration involves anticipating possible ethical dilemmas, leading others in ethical decision making, and making sure any decision becomes part of an organization’s systems and procedures.The sixth and final element is a sense of moral obligation, which serves as a motivating force to engage in moral judgment and to implement decisions. James Rest of the University of Minnesota developed what may be the most widely used model of moral behavior. Rest built his four-component model by working backward. He started with the end product—moral action—and then determined the steps that produce such behavior. He concluded that ethical action is the result of four psychological subprocesses: (1) moral sensitivity (recognition), (2) moral judgment, (3) moral focus (motivation), and (4) moral character. Component 1: Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral sensitivity (recognizing the presence of an ethical issue) is the firs t step in ethical decision making because we can’t solve a moral problem unless we first know that one exists. A great many moral failures stem from ethical insensitivity. The safety committee at Ford Motor decided not to fix the defective gas tank on the Pinto automobile (see Chapter 2) because members saw no problem with saving money rather than human lives.Wal-Mart was slow to respond to concerns raised by employees, labor groups, environmentalists, and others about wage violations, sexual discrimination, poor environmental practices, and other issues. 3 Many students, focused on finishing their degrees, see no problem with cheating. (You can test your ethical sensitivity by completing the â€Å"Self-Assessment: Moral Sensitivity Scenarios. †) According to Rest, problem recognition requires that we consider how our behavior affects others, identify possible courses of action, and determine theCHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——237 consequ ences of each potential strategy. Empathy and perspective skills are essential to this component of moral action. If we understand how others might feel or react, we are more sensitive to potential negative effects of our choices and can better predict the likely outcomes of each option. A number of factors prevent us from recognizing ethical issues. We may not factor ethical considerations into our typical ways of thinking or mental models. We may be reluctant to use moral terminology (values, justice, right, wrong) to describe our decisions because we want to avoid controversy or believe that keeping silent will make us appear strong and capable. 5 We may even deceive ourselves into thinking that we are acting morally when we are clearly not, a process called ethical fading. The moral aspects of a decision fade into the background if we use euphemisms to disguise unethical behavior, numb our consciences through repeated misbehavior, blame others, and claim that only we know the â €Å"truth. 6 Fortunately, we can take steps to enhance our ethical sensitivity (and the sensitivity of our fellow leaders and followers) by doing the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Active listening and role playing Imagining other perspectives Stepping back from a situation to determine whether it has moral implications Using moral terminology to discuss problems and issues Avoiding euphemisms Refusing to excuse misbehavior Accepting personal responsibility Practicing humility and openness to other points of viewIn addition to these steps, we can also increase ethical sensitivity by making an issue more salient. The greater the moral intensity of an issue, the more likely it is that decision makers will take note of it and respond ethically. 7 We can build moral intensity by doing the following: †¢ Illustrating that the situation can cause significant harm or benefit to many people (magnitude of consequences) †¢ Establishing tha t there is social consensus or agreement that a behavior is moral or immoral (e. g. legal or illegal, approved or forbidden by a professional association) †¢ Demonstrating probability of effect, that the act will happen and will cause harm or benefit †¢ Showing that the consequences will happen soon (temporal immediacy) †¢ Emphasizing social, psychological, physical, or psychological closeness (proximity) with those affected by our actions †¢ Proving that one person or a group will greatly suffer due to a decision (concentration of effect) 238——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Finally, paying attention to our emotions can be an important clue that we are faced with an ethical dilemma.Moral emotions are part of our makeup as humans. 8 These feelings are triggered even when we do not have a personal stake in an event. For example, we may feel angry when reading about mistreatment of migrant workers or sympathy when we see a picture of a refu gee living in a squalid camp. Moral emotions also encourage us to take action that benefits other people and society as a whole. We might write a letter protesting the poor working conditions of migrant laborers, for instance, or send money to a humanitarian organization working with displaced persons. Anger, disgust, and contempt are other-condemning emotions.They are elicited by unfairness, betrayal, immorality, cruelty, poor performance, and status differences. Anger can motivate us to redress injustices like racism, oppression, and poverty. Disgust encourages us to set up rewards and punishments to deter inappropriate behaviors. Contempt generally causes us to step back from others. Shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that encourage us to obey the rules and uphold the social order. These feelings are triggered when we violate norms and social conventions, present the wrong image to others, and fail to live up to moral guidelines.Shame and embarrassment ca n keep us from engaging in further damaging behavior and may drive us to withdraw from social contact. Guilt motivates us to help others and to treat them well. Sympathy and compassion are other-suffering emotions. They are elicited when we perceive suffering or sorrow in our fellow human beings. Such feelings encourage us to comfort, help, and alleviate the pain of others. Gratitude, awe, and elevation are other-praising (positive) emotions that open us up to new opportunities and relationships.They are prompted when someone has done something on our behalf, when we run across moral beauty (acts of charity, loyalty, and self-sacrifice, for example), and when we read or hear about moral exemplars (see Chapter 3). Gratitude motivates us to repay others; awe and elevation encourage us to become better persons and to take steps to help others. In sum, if we experience anger, disgust, guilt, sympathy, or other moral emotions, the chances are good that there is an ethical dimension to th e situation that confronts us. We will need to look further to determine if this is indeed the case.CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——239 SELF-ASSESSMENT MORAL SENSITIVITY SCENARIOS Instructions Read each vignette and consider the following statement: There are very important ethical aspects to this situation. (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) Then briefly explain your rating for each vignette in the space below it. For more information on the ethical issues raised by the scenarios, see Item 1 under â€Å"For Further Exploration, Challenge, and Self-Assessment. † Vignette 1 One of your most important customers, a medical clinic, called yesterday.The clinic had ordered a product 10 days ago (products are normally delivered within 7–10 days), but it had not arrived. Quickly, you traced the order to the shipping office. You asked the shipping clerk about the order, and she said, â€Å"I shipped it 2 days ago! † As you left the shipping office, you glanced at her desk and saw her shipping receipts. You could clearly see that the order was shipped this morning. You called the client back with the news that the product was on its way. As you talked with the client, you learned that the delay of the product had allowed the condition of some patients to worsen quite dramatically. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 2 Last Monday, you were sitting at your desk examining a request that a customer had just faxed to you. The customer was proposing a project that would make a tremendous amount of money for your company but had an extremely demanding time schedule.Just as you were about to call the custo mer and accept the project, one of your employees, Phil, knocked on the door. He entered your office, politely placed a letter of resignation on your desk, and told you he was sorry, but in two weeks, he 240——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies would be moving to another state to be closer to his ailing parents. After he left, you thought about the proposed project and determined that even though Phil would be gone, you could still meet all of the customer’s deadlines. You called the customer and accepted the project. ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Vignette 3 Earlier today, a salesman who works in Iowa called you and told you about an experience he had last week. One of his customers placed a small order of about $1,500 worth of product from corporate headquarters.The home office immediately shipped the package through a freight company, and it arrived the next day at the freight company’s warehouse in Iowa. The salesman went to the warehouse just as it was closing and talked to one of the managers. The manager said that everyone had gone home for the day, but he assured him that the package would be delivered directly to his office the next day. The salesman knew that the customer did not need the materials for at least another 3 days, but he didn’t want to wait.He placed a $20 bill on the counter and asked the warehouse manager one last time if there was anything he could do. The manager found the paperwork, got the product from the back of the warehouse, and brought it out to the salesman. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ ________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________SOURCE: Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: Investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 233–243. Published by the American Psychological Association. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——241 Component 2: Moral Judgment Once an ethical problem is identified, decision makers select a course of action from the options generated in Component 1. In other words, they make judgments about what is the right or wrong thing to do in this situation.Moral judgment has generated more research than the other components of Rest’s model. Investigators have been particularly interested in cognitive moral development, the process by wh ich people develop their moral reasoning abilities over time. Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through a series of moral stages just as they do physical ones. 9 Each stage is more advanced than the one before. Not only do people engage in more complex reasoning as they progress up the stages, but they also become less self-centered and develop broader definitions of morality.Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, each divided into two stages. Level I, preconventional thinking, is the most primitive and focuses on consequences. This form of moral reasoning is common among children who choose to obey to avoid punishment (Stage 1) or follow the rules in order to meet their interests (Stage 2). Stage 2 thinkers are interested in getting a fair deal: You help me, and I’ll help you. Conventional thinkers (Level II) look to others for guidance when deciding how to act.Stage 3 people want to live up to the expectations of those t hey respect, such as parents, siblings, and friends, and value concern for others and respect. Stage 4 individuals take a somewhat broader perspective, looking to society as a whole for direction. They believe in following rules at work, for example, and the law. Kohlberg found that most adults are Level II thinkers. Level III, postconceptual or principled reasoning, is the most advanced type of ethical thinking. Stage 5 people are guided by utilitarian principles.They are concerned for the needs of the entire group and want to make sure that rules and laws serve the greatest good for the greatest number. Stage 6 people operate according to internalized, universal principles such as justice, equality, and human dignity. These principles consistently guide their behavior and take precedence over the laws of any particular society. According to Kohlberg, fewer than 20% of American adults ever reach Stage 5, and almost no one reaches Stage 6. Critics take issue with both the philosophi cal foundation of Kohlberg’s model and its reliance on concrete stages of moral development. 0 They contend that Kohlberg based his postconventional stage on Rawls’s justice-asfairness theory and made deontological ethics superior to other ethical approaches. They note that the model applies more to societal issues than to individual ethical decisions. A great many psychologists challenge the notion 242——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies that people go through a rigid or â€Å"hard† series of moral stages, leaving one stage completely behind before moving to the next. They argue instead that a person can engage in many ways of thinking about a problem, regardless of age.Rest (who studied under Kohlberg), Darcia Narvaez, and their colleagues responded to the critics by replacing the hard stages with a staircase of developmental schemas. 11 Schemas are networks of knowledge organized around life events. We use schemas when encountering new s ituations or information. You are able to master information in new classes, for instance, by using strategies you developed in previous courses. According to this â€Å"neoKohlbergian† approach, decision makers develop more sophisticated moral schemas as they develop. The least sophisticated schema is based on personal interest.People at this level are concerned only with what they may gain or lose in an ethical dilemma. No consideration is given to the needs of broader society. Those who reason at the next level, the maintaining norms schema, believe they have a moral obligation to maintain social order. They are concerned with following rules and laws and making sure that regulations apply to everyone. These thinkers believe that there is a clear hierarchy with carefully defined roles (e. g. , bosses–subordinates, teachers–students, officers– enlisted personnel).The postconventional schema is the most advanced level of moral reasoning. Thinking at this level is not limited to one ethical approach, as Kohlberg argued, but encompasses many different philosophical traditions. Postconventional individuals believe that moral obligations are to be based on shared ideals, should not favor some people at the expense of others, and are open to scrutiny (testing and examination). Such thinkers reason like moral philosophers, looking behind societal norms to determine whether they serve moral purposes. Refer to â€Å"Leadership Ethics at the Movies: Michael Clayton† for an example of a leader who shifts to a higher level of moral reasoning. ) Rest developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT) to measure moral development. Subjects taking the DIT (and its successor, the DIT-2) respond to six ethical scenarios and then choose statements that best reflect the reasoning they used to come up with their choices. These statements, which correspond to the three levels of moral reasoning, are then scored. In the best-known dilemma, Heinz’s wife is dying of cancer and needs a drug he cannot afford to buy.He must decide whether to steal the drug to save her life. Hundreds of studies using the DIT reveal that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education. 12 Undergraduate and graduate students benefit from their educational experiences in general and ethical coursework in particular. When education stops, moral development stops. In addition, moral development is a universal concept, crossing cultural boundaries. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——243 Principled leaders can boost the moral judgment of a group by encouraging members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas. 3 Models of cognitive development provide important insights into the process of ethical decision making. First, contextual variables play an important role in shaping ethical behavior. Most people look to others as well as to rules and regulations when making ethical determinations. They are more likely to m ake wise moral judgments if coworkers and supervisors encourage and model ethical behavior. As leaders, we need to build ethical environments. (We’ll take a closer look at the formation of ethical groups and organizations in Chapters 8 and 9. ) Second, education fosters moral reasoning.Pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree can promote your moral development. As part of your education, focus as much attention as you can on ethics (i. e. , take ethics courses, discuss ethical issues in groups and classes, reflect on the ethical challenges you experience in internships). Third, a broader perspective is better. Consider the needs and viewpoints of others outside your immediate group or organization; determine what is good for the local area, the larger society, and the global community. Fourth, moral principles produce superior solutions.The best ethical thinkers base their choices on widely accepted ethical guidelines. Do the same by drawing on import ant ethical approaches such as utilitarianism, the categorical imperative, altruism, communitarianism, and justice-as-fairness theory. LEADERSHIP ETHICS AT THE MOVIES MICHAEL CLAYTON Key Cast Members: George Clooney, Tilda Swinton, Tom Wilkinson, Sydney Pollack Synopsis: George Clooney stars as Michael Clayton, the â€Å"fixer† for a large New York City firm. Clayton takes care of any messes involving clients, like hit-andrun accidents and shoplifting charges.When the firm’s top litigator (played by Wilkinson) begins to work for the other side in a $3 billion lawsuit, Clayton must get him back on his medications and under control. Karen Crowder (Swinton) is chief counsel for the conglomerate being sued for manufacturing a toxic chemical. She decides to permanently silence both the rogue lawyer and Clayton. The fixer, whose life and reputation have been tarnished by a series of poor ethical and business choices, must now decide how to respond to illegal wiretapping and murder. Swinton won a Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her (Continued) 44——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies (Continued) performance as the ambitious attorney who decides that corporate survival takes precedence over human life. Rating: R for language, including sexual dialogue Themes: moral reasoning, the dark side of leadership, corruption, greed, character, deception Discussion Starters 1. What factors motivated Clayton to become a â€Å"fixer† and the conglomerate’s chief counsel to protect her company at any cost? 2. Was it unethical for the law firm’s top litigator to begin to work for the plaintiffs? Why or why not? 3.What accounts for Clayton’s shift to a higher level of moral reasoning? Component 3: Moral Focus (Motivation) After concluding what course of action is best, decision makers must be focused (motivated to follow through) on their choices. Moral values often conflict with other significant values. For instance, a n accounting supervisor who wants to blow the whistle on illegal accounting practices at her firm must balance her desire to do the right thing against her desire to keep her job, provide income for her family, and maintain relationships with her fellow workers.She will report the accounting abuses to outside authorities only if moral considerations take precedence over these competing priorities. Psychologists report that self-interest and hypocrisy undermine moral motivation. 14 Sometimes individuals genuinely want to do the right thing, but their integrity is â€Å"overpowered† when they discover that they will have to pay a personal cost for acting in an ethical manner. Others never intend to follow an ethical course of action but engage in moral hypocrisy instead. These decision makers â€Å"want to appear moral while, if possible, avoiding the cost of actually being moral. 15 In experimental settings, they say that assignments should be distributed fairly but then assi gn themselves the most desirable tasks while giving less desirable chores to others. Both self-interest and hypocrisy encourage leaders to set their moral principles aside. For example, corporate executives may declare that lower-level employees deserve higher wages. However, whether they really want to help workers or CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——245 just want to appear as if they do, these executives are not likely to pay employees more if it means that they will earn less as a result.Rewards play an important role in ethical follow-through. People are more likely to give ethical values top priority when rewarded through raises, promotions, public recognition, and other means for doing so. Conversely, moral motivation drops when the reward system reinforces unethical behavior. 16 Unfortunately, misplaced rewards are all too common, as in the case of electronics retailers who reward employees for selling expensive extended warranties on new product s. Such warranties are generally a bad deal for consumers. Emotions also play a part in moral motivation. 7 As noted earlier, sympathy, disgust, guilt, and other moral emotions prompt us to take action. We can use their motivational force to help us punish wrongdoers, address injustice, provide assistance, and so on. Other researchers report that positive emotions such as joy and happiness make people more optimistic and more likely to live out their moral choices and to help others. Depression, on the other hand, lowers motivation, and jealousy, rage, and envy contribute to lying, revenge, stealing, and other antisocial behaviors.To increase your moral motivation and the moral motivation of followers, seek out and create ethically rewarding environments. Make sure the reward system of an organization supports ethical behavior before joining it as an employee or a volunteer. Try to reduce the costs of behaving morally by instituting policies and procedures that make it easier to rep ort unethical behavior, combat discrimination, and so on. Work to align rewards with desired behavior in your current organization. Be concerned about how goals are reached. If all else fails, reward yourself.Take pride in following through on your choices and on living up to your self-image as a person of integrity. Tap into moral emotions while making a conscious effort to control negative feelings and to put yourself in a positive frame of mind. Component 4: Moral Character Executing the plan of action takes character. Moral agents have to overcome opposition, resist distractions, cope with fatigue, and develop tactics and strategies for reaching their goals. This helps explain why there is only a moderate correlation between moral judgment and moral behavior.Many times deciding does not lead to doing. The positive character traits described in Chapter 3 contribute to ethical follow-through. Courage helps leaders implement their plans despite the risks and costs of doing so while prudence helps them choose the best course of 246——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies action. Integrity encourages leaders to be true to themselves and their choices. Humility forces leaders to address limitations that might prevent them from taking action. Reverence promotes self-sacrifice. Optimism equips leaders to persist in the face of obstacles and difficulties.Compassion and justice focus the attention of leaders on the needs of others rather than on personal priorities. In addition to virtues, other personal characteristics contribute to moral action. 18 Those with a strong will, as well as confidence in themselves and their abilities, are more likely to persist. The same is true for those with an internal locus of control. Internally oriented people (internals) believe that they have control over their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people (externals) believe that life events are beyond their control and are the prod uct of fate or luck instead.Because they have personal responsibility for their actions, internals are more motivated to do what is right. Externals are more susceptible to situational pressures and therefore less likely to persist in ethical tasks. Successful implementation also requires competence. For instance, modifying the organizational reward system may entail researching, organizing, arguing, networking, and relationship-building skills. These skills are put to maximum use when actors have an in-depth understanding of the organizational context: important policies, the group’s history and culture, informal leaders, and so on.Following the character-building guidelines presented in Chapter 3 will go a long way to helping you build the virtues you need to put your moral choices into action. You may also want to look at your past performance to see why you succeeded or failed. Believe that you can have an impact. Otherwise, you are probably not going to carry through whe n obstacles surface. Develop your skills so that you can better put your moral choice into action and master the context in which you operate. Decision-Making Formats Decision-making guidelines or formats can help us make better ethical choices.Taking a systematic approach encourages teams and individuals to carefully define the problem, gather information, apply ethical standards and values, identify and evaluate alternative courses of action, and follow through on their choices. They’re also better equipped to defend their decisions. Four ethical decision-making formats are described in the pages to come. All four approaches are useful. You may want to use just one or a combination of all of them. The particular format you use is not as important as using a systematic approach to moral reasoning. You can practice these guidelines by applying them to Case Study 7. and the scenarios described at the end of the chapter. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior—â €”247 You will probably find it difficult at first to follow a format. That’s because using a format takes a significant amount of effort, and we are used to making rapid judgments mentally when faced with ethical choices. 19 Without being conscious of the fact, we quickly invoke decision-making rules we have learned though experience, such as â€Å"it is always good to obey authority† or â€Å"always be as fair as possible. † Or we intuitively come to a rapid decision based on our emotions and cultural background.Often these quick responses are good ones. But not always. There may be times, for instance, when authority needs to be disobeyed or fairness must be set aside for compassion. Our intuitions are wrong when they are based on mistaken cultural beliefs. For example, many Americans used to immediately condemn interracial couples. As time passed, society recognized that this reaction was biased, unfounded, and unjust. I suggest that, when confronted wit h ethical dilemmas like those in Case Study 7. 1, you write down your initial reaction before using a format. Later compare your final decision to your immediate response.Your ultimate conclusion after following a series of steps may be the same as your first judgment. Or you might find that you come to a significantly different decision. In any case, you should be comfortable with your solution because your deliberations were informed both by your preconscious experiences, emotions, and intuitions as well as by your conscious reasoning. 20 CASE STUDY 7. 1 PARKING LOT SHOOTING Over the past year several employees of a national fast-food chain have been shot or injured when intervening in fights or crimes occurring in the restaurant’s parking lots.As a result, corporate headquarters drafted a new policy that forbids workers from leaving the building in such emergencies, instructing them instead to dial 911. Those who violate the policy will immediately be fired. Imagine that y ou are day-shift manager at one of the company’s locations where a shooting has occurred. You call 911 but notice that the victim, who is lying right outside the door, is bleeding profusely. No one else is stepping up to help the injured man. You have first-aid training and believe you can stabilize his condition before the ambulance arrives.The shooter has apparently fled the scene. Would you disobey company policy and help the shooting victim? 248——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Kidder’s Ethical Checkpoints Ethicist Rushworth Kidder suggests that nine steps or checkpoints can help bring order to otherwise confusing ethical issues. 21 1. Recognize that there is a problem. This step is critically important because it forces us to acknowledge that there is an issue that deserves our attention and helps us separate moral questions from disagreements about manners and social conventions.For example, being late for a party may be bad manners and v iolate cultural expectations. However, this act does not translate into a moral problem involving right or wrong. On the other hand, deciding whether to accept a kickback from a supplier is an ethical dilemma. 2. Determine the actor. Once we’ve determined that there is an ethical issue, we then need to decide who is responsible for addressing the problem. I may be concerned that the owner of a local business treats his employees poorly. Nonetheless, unless I work for the company or buy its products, there is little I can do to address this situation. . Gather the relevant facts. Adequate, accurate, and current information is important for making effective decisions of all kinds, including ethical ones. Details do make a difference. In deciding whether it is just to suspend a student for fighting, for instance, a school principal will want to hear from teachers, classmates, and the offender to determine the seriousness of the offense, the student’s reason for fighting, and the outcome of the altercation. The administrator will probably be more lenient if this is the offender’s first offense and he was defending himself. 4.Test for right-versus-wrong issues. A choice is generally a poor one if it gives you a negative, gut-level reaction (the stench test), would make you uncomfortable if it appeared on the front page of tomorrow’s newspaper (the frontpage test), or would violate the moral code of someone that you care a lot about (the Mom test). If your decision violates any of these criteria, you had better reconsider. 5. Test for right-versus-right values. Many ethical dilemmas pit two core values against each other. Determine whether two good or right values are in conflict with one another in this situation.Right-versus-right value clashes include the following: ? Truth telling versus loyalty to others and institutions. Telling the truth may threaten our allegiance to another person or to an organization, such as when leaders and f ollowers are faced with the decision of whether to blow the whistle on organizational misbehavior (see Chapter 5). Kidder believes that truth versus loyalty is the most common type of conflict involving two deeply held values. CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——249 ? Personal needs versus the needs of the community.Our desire to serve our immediate group or ourselves can run counter to the needs of the larger group or community. ? Short-term benefits versus long-term negative consequences. Sometimes satisfying the immediate needs of the group (giving a hefty pay raise to employees, for example) can lead to long-term negative consequences (endangering the future of the business). ? Justice versus mercy. Being fair and even-handed may conflict with our desire to show love and compassion. 6. Apply the ethical standards and perspectives. Apply the ethical principle that is most relevant and useful to this specific issue.Is it communitarianism? Utilitarianism? Kant’s categorical imperative? A combination of perspectives? 7. Look for a third way. Sometimes seemingly irreconcilable values can be resolved through compromise or the development of a creative solution. Negotiators often seek a third way to bring competing factions together. Such was the case in the deliberations that produced the Camp David peace accord. Egypt demanded that Israel return land on the West Bank seized in the 1967 War. Israel resisted because it wanted a buffer zone to protect its security.The dispute was settled when Egypt pledged that it would not attack Israel again. Assured of safety, the Israelis agreed to return the territory to Egypt. 22 8. Make the decision. At some point we need to step up and make the decision. This seems a given (after all, the point of the whole process is to reach a conclusion). However, we may be mentally exhausted from wrestling with the problem, get caught up in the act of analysis, or lack the necessary courage to come to a decision. In Kidder’s words, At this point in the process, there’s little to do but decide.That requires moral courage—an attribute essential to leadership and one that, along with reason, distinguishes humanity most sharply from the animal world. Little wonder, then, that the exercise of ethical decision-making is often seen as the highest fulfillment of the human condition. 23 9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. Learn from your choices. Once you’ve moved on to other issues, stop and reflect. What lessons emerged from this case that you can apply to future decisions? What ethical issues did it raise? Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Is thorough †¢ Considers problem ownership 50——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies †¢ Emphasizes the importance of getting the facts straight †¢ Recognizes that dilemmas can involve right–right as well as right–wrong choices †¢ Encourages the search for creat ive solutions †¢ Sees ethical decision making as a learning process Weaknesses (Cons) †¢ It is not easy to determine who has the responsibility for solving a problem †¢ The facts are not always available, or there may not be enough time to gather them †¢ Decisions don’t always lead to action There is a lot to be said for Kidder’s approach to ethical decision making.For one thing, he seems to cover all the bases, beginning with defining the issue all the way through to learning from the situation after the dust has settled. He acknowledges that there are some problems that we can’t do much about and that we need to pay particular attention to gathering as much information as possible. The ethicist recognizes that some decisions involve deciding between two â€Å"goods† and leaves the door open for creative solutions. Making a choice can be an act of courage, as Kidder points out, and we can apply lessons learned in one dilemma to future problems.On the flip side, some of the strengths of Kidder’s model can also be seen as weaknesses. As we’ll see in Chapter 10, determining responsibility or ownership of a problem is getting harder in an increasingly interdependent world. Who is responsible for poor labor conditions in third-world countries, for instance? The manufacturer? The subcontractor? The store that sells the products made in sweatshops? Those who buy the items? Kidder also seems to assume that leaders will have the time to gather necessary information. Unfortunately, in situations like that described in Case Study 7. 1, time is in short supply.Finally, the model seems to equate deciding with doing. As we saw in our earlier discussion of moral action, we can decide on a course of action but not follow through. Kidder is right to say that making ethical choices takes courage. However, it takes even more courage to put the choice into effect. The SAD Formula Media ethicist Louis Alvin Day of Loui siana State University developed the SAD formula in order to build important elements of critical thinking into moral reasoning. Critical thinking is a rational approach to decision making CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——251 that emphasizes careful analysis and evaluation.It begins with an understanding of the subject to be evaluated; moves to identifying the issues, information, and assumptions surrounding the problem; and then concludes with evaluating alternatives and reaching a conclusion. 24 Each stage of the SAD formula—situation definition, analysis of the situation, decision—addresses a component of critical thinking. (See Box 7. 1. ) To demonstrate this model, I’ll use a conflict involving mandatory vaccinations of health care workers. 25 Situation Definition Health care professionals are at risk for contracting infectious diseases and spreading them to their patients.For that reason, the U. S. government determined that h ealth care workers should be one of the first groups to receive flu vaccines such as the one designed to combat the H1N1 (swine flu) virus. Vaccination can reduce the likelihood of catching the flu by 70%–80% and is one of the best ways to prevent a pandemic. However, fewer than half of U. S. health workers get flu shots every year (rates are also low in Great Britain and Hong Kong). Medical personnel who fail to be vaccinated often do so for the same reasons as other Americans.They don’t like shots, it is not convenient to get them, they claim they seldom get sick, or they believe the vaccine makes them ill (though scientists deny that this happens). Health officials have tried a variety of strategies to increase the percentage of doctors and nurses receiving vaccinations, including promotional campaigns and prize drawings. However, these voluntary efforts have fallen short. Concerned about low participation rates, particularly in light of the danger posed by the swin e flu, Hospital Corporation of America, MedStar Health (Maryland), Virginia Mason (Seattle, WA), BJC HealthCare (St.Louis, MO), and the state of New York began mandatory vaccination programs. A number of clinics and doctor’s offices followed suit. Employees were told they would lose their jobs if they did not get the vaccine. Exceptions were made for those likely to have an allergic reaction (eggs are used in the production of the shots) or those with religious objections. Some health care workers and their unions immediately protested the stricter vaccination policies, labeling such programs as intrusive violations of individual rights. Day says that the ethical question to be addressed should be as narrow as possible.In our example, we will seek to answer the following query: Are mandatory flu-vaccination policies for health care workers ethically justified? 252——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies BOX 7. 1 THE MORAL REASONING PROCESS Situation Definiti on Description of facts Identification of principles and values Statement of ethical issue or question Analysis Weighing of competing principles and values Consideration of external factors Examination of duties to various parties Discussion of applicable ethical theories Decision Rendering of moral agent’s decision Defense of that decision based on moral theory SOURCE: From Day.Ethics in Media Communications: Cases and Controversies, 5E. Copyright  © 2006 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission www. cengage. com/permissions. Analysis Evaluation of Values and Principles. Competing principles and values are clearly present in this situation. On the one side, medical administrators and public health officials put a high value on the responsibility of medical personnel to patients and argue that mandatory vaccinations will save lives, particularly those of vulnerable populations like the sick, those with compromised immune systems, pregnant women, the very young, and the elderly.In requiring mandatory vaccinations in New York, the state’s health commissioner asserted: â€Å"The rationale begins with health-care ethics, which is: The patient’s well-being comes ahead of the personal preferences of health-care workers. †26 (The commissioner later rescinded his edict when there was a shortage of the vaccine. ) The chief medical officer of MedStar Health said the decision to require vaccinations â€Å"is all about patient safety. † On the other side of the debate are individuals, employee unions, and groups CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——253 who put their priority on individual rights.They believe that making flu shots a condition of employment takes away the right to make personal medical decisions, and they have concerns about the safety of the vaccines despite the assurances of medical experts. Opponents also worry that mandatory programs will spread from the health ca re sector into other areas of society. Said a representative of an organization wanting to limit government expansion, â€Å"You start with health-care workers but then expand that umbrella to make it mandatory for everybody. It’s all part of an encroachment on our liberties. †27 External Factors.Some influenza strains, like H1N1, pose greater risks than other strains and spread more rapidly, making vaccinations even more important. Medical employees already have to be inoculated for other conditions like mumps, measles, and tuberculosis, and there haven’t been widespread protests about these requirements. In addition, medical personnel have to follow such mandatory safety procedures as washing their hands before surgery. Vaccinations appear to be a safety measure like hand washing. However, past inoculation programs have made some medical professionals skeptical about current efforts.Earlier vaccines did make recipients sore and could cause mild flu-like sympto ms. The H1N1 vaccine seemed to be rushed into production, raising concerns that recipients were serving as â€Å"guinea pigs. † Nurses, doctors, and home health givers, like other Americans, are increasingly worried about substances they put in their bodies. Moral Duties or Loyalties. Professor Day borrows from theologian Ralph Potter for this part of his model. Potter believes we need to take into account important duties or loyalties when making ethical choices. 8 In this case, the following duties have to be kept in mind: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Loyalty to self (individual conscience) Loyalty to patients Loyalty to vulnerable populations Loyalty to fellow employees Loyalty to others in the same profession Loyalty to the public Medical officials seem primarily concerned for patients, vulnerable populations, and the larger community. Low vaccination rates threaten patients and clients and help the virus spread. Health care workers who refuse flu shots also damage the credibility of the medical profession. Why should patients be vaccinated if their doctors and nurses don’t think it is safe 54——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies or necessary to do so? Vaccination objectors are more concerned for their individual rights and, in some cases, their personal safety. They seem to overlook their primary duty, which is to serve their patients. Yet not all appear to be acting out of selfish motives. Some resistors are concerned about setting a precedent that could reduce the rights of their fellow citizens in the years to come. Moral Theories. Each of the ethical perspectives outlined in Chapter 5 can be applied to this dilemma.From a utilitarian perspective, the benefit of protecting personal rights has to be weighed against the dangers of spreading the flu virus. However, the immediate benefits of slowing the virus also need to be weighed against the long-term costs—loss of individual rights and govern ment intrusion. Based on Kant’s categorical imperative, we could ask if we would want everyone to be vaccinated (probably) or if we would want everyone to refuse to be vaccinated (probably not). However, employees who resist the mandatory shots should carry through on their decision regardless of the consequences, such as losing their jobs.Rawls’s theory could be applied to say that required vaccinations are justified because they protect the least advantaged members of society. Communitarianism also seems to support the mandatory vaccination position. Medical leaders put their emphasis on responsibility to patients, vulnerable groups, and the public. Objectors seem to emphasize individual rights rather than duties. Advocates of mandatory vaccinations have a stronger altruistic focus because such efforts are designed to reduce sickness and suffering. Opponents may argue, however, that they are demonstrating concern by protecting the rights of others.Decision Decisions often emerge out of careful definition and analysis of the problem. It may be clear which course of action is best after external constraints, principles, duties, and moral theories are identified and evaluated. In our example, mandatory flu vaccination programs for health care workers appear to be morally justified. Such programs put the needs of others first and reduce suffering and death. They seem consistent with other requirements placed on health care workers and support the patient-focused mission of the medical profession.Health care employees should prevent sickness, not spread it. This option also seems to be best supported by moral theory. Nonetheless, opponents of mandatory vaccination programs are right to point out that we should be cautious about requiring health CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——255 treatments. Just because mandatory influenza vaccinations are justified for health care workers does not mean that we should require all citi zens to be vaccinated (that’s a different question for analysis) or force citizens into other medical treatments. Balance SheetAdvantages (Pros) †¢ Encourages orderly, systematic reasoning †¢ Incorporates situation definition, duties, and moral theories Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Failure to reach consensus †¢ Limits creativity †¢ Ignores implementation The SAD formula does encourage careful reasoning by building in key elements of the critical thinking process. Following the formula keeps decision makers from reaching hasty decisions. Instead of jumping immediately to solutions, they must carefully identify elements of the situation, examine and evaluate ethical alternatives, and then reach a conclusion.Three elements of the SAD formula are particularly praiseworthy. First, the formula recognizes that the keys to solving a problem often lie in clearly identifying and describing it. Groups are far less likely to go astray when members clearly outline the question they are to answer. Second, Day’s formula highlights duties or loyalties. In the case of vaccinations, prioritizing loyalties is key to supporting or opposing mandatory vaccination programs. Third, the formula incorporates moral theories directly into the decisionmaking process. The strengths of the SAD model must be balanced against some troubling weaknesses.Day implies that a clear choice will emerge after the problem is defined and analyzed. Nevertheless, that may not always be the case. Even in our example, there is room for dispute. While it appears as if mandatory vaccinations are morally justified, those who put a high value on personal freedoms will likely remain unconvinced. They raise valid concerns about the long-term impact of such programs as well. Focusing on a narrowly defined question may exclude creative options and make it hard to apply principles from one decision to other settings. Finally, the formula leaves out the important implementation stage . 56——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Nash’s 12 Questions Ethics consultant Laura Nash offers 12 questions that can help businesses and other groups identify the responsibilities involved in making moral choices. 29 She argues that discussions based on these queries can be useful even if the group doesn’t reach a conclusion. Managers who answer the questions surface ethical concerns that might otherwise remain hidden, identify common moral problems, clarify gaps between stated values and performance, and explore a variety of alternatives. 1. Have you defined the problem accurately?The ethical decision-making process begins with assembling the facts. Determine how many employees will be affected by layoffs, how much the cleanup of toxic materials will cost, or how many people have been injured by faulty products. Finding out the facts can help defuse the emotionalism of some issues (perhaps the damage is not as great as first feared). 2. How wou ld you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence? Asking how others might feel forces self-examination. From a company’s point of view, expanding a local plant may make good sense by increasing production and efficiency.Government officials and neighbors might have an entirely different perspective. A larger plant means more workers clogging already overcrowded roads and contributing to urban sprawl. For example, considering the company’s point of view may impact the decision you reach in â€Å"Focus on Follower Ethics: Paying Back Microsoft† on page 258. 3. How did this situation occur in the first place? This question separates the symptoms from the disease. Lying, cheating customers, and strained labor relations are generally symptoms of deeper problems.Firing an employee for unethical behavior is a temporary solution. Probe to discover the underlying causes. For example, many dubious accounting practices are the result of pressure to pro duce high quarterly profits. 4. To whom and to what do you give your loyalties as a person or group and as a member of the organization? As we saw in Chapter 1, conflicts of loyalty are hard to sort through. However, wrestling with the problem of ultimate loyalty (Work group? Family? Self? Corporation? ) can clarify the values operating in an ethical dilemma. 5. What is your intention in making this decision? . How does this intention compare with the likely results? These questions probe both the group’s intentions and the likely products. Honorable motives CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——257 don’t guarantee positive results. Make sure that the outcomes reflect your motivations. 7. Whom could your decision or action injure? Too often groups consider possible injury only after being sued. Try, in advance, to determine harmful consequences. What will happen if customers ignore label warnings and spread your pesticide indiscriminately, for example?Will the guns you manufacture end up in the hands of urban gang members? Based on these determinations, you may decide to abandon your plans to make these items or revise the way they are marketed. 8. Can you engage the affected parties in a discussion of the problem before you make your decision? Talking to affected parties is one way to make sure that you understand how your actions will influence them. Few of us would want other people to decide what’s in our best interest. Yet we often push forward with projects that assume we know what’s in the best interests of others. 9.Are you confident that your position will be as valid over a long period of time as it seems now? Make sure that your choice will stand the test of time. What seem like compelling reasons for a decision may not seem so important months or years later. Consider the U. S. decision to invade Iraq, for instance. American intelligence experts and political leaders tied Saddam Hussein to terror ist groups and claimed that he was hiding weapons of mass destruction. After the invasion, no solid links between Iraqis and international terrorists or weapons of mass destruction were discovered.Our decision to wage this war doesn’t appear as justified now as it did in the months leading up to the conflict. 10. Could you disclose without qualm your decision or action to your boss, your CEO, the board of directors, your family, or society as a whole? No ethical decision is too trivial to escape the disclosure test. If you or your group would not want to disclose this action, then you’d better reevaluate your choice. 11. What is the symbolic potential of your action if understood? Misunderstood? What you intend may not be what the public perceives (see Questions 5 and 6).If your company is a notorious polluter, contributions to local arts groups may be seen as an attempt to divert attention from your firm’s poor environmental record, not as a generous civic gest ure. 12. Under what conditions would you allow exceptions to your stand? Moral consistency is critical, but is there any basis for making an exception? Dorm rules might require that visiting hours end at midnight on weekdays. Yet, as a resident assistant, is there any time when you would be willing to overlook violations? During finals week? On the evening before classes start?When dorm residents and visitors are working on class projects? 258——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies Balance Sheet Advantages (Pros) †¢ Highlights the importance of gathering facts †¢ Encourages perspective taking †¢ Forecasts results and consequences over time Disadvantages (Cons) †¢ Is extremely time consuming †¢ May not always reach a conclusion †¢ Ignores implementation Like the ethical checkpoints, the 12 questions highlight the importance of problem identification and information gathering. They go a step further, however, by encouraging us to engage in perspective taking.We need to see the problem from the other party’s point of view, consider the possible injury we might cause, invite others to give us feedback, and consider how our actions will be perceived. We also need to envision results and take a longterm perspective, imagining how our decisions will stand the test of time. Stepping back can keep us from making choices we might regret later. For example, the decision to test nuclear weapons on U. S. soil without warning citizens may have seemed justified to officials waging the Cold War. However, now even the federal government admits that these tests were immoral. NW E FOCUS ON FOLLOWER ETHICS PAYING BACK MICROSOFT? S Software giant Microsoft made an embarrassing error when it engaged in the first widespread layoffs in the firm’s history. Company officials overpaid an average of $4,000–$5,000 to 25 out of the first 1,400 workers it furloughed. After discovering the error, the firm sent a letter ask ing for repayment from the 25 laid-off workers, requesting a check or money order and apologizing for the inconvenience. Contents of the letter soon appeared on the Internet and in the national media. Microsoft officials then backed off their attempts to get the money back.According to a company spokesperson, â€Å"This was a mistake on our part. We should have handled this situation in a more thoughtful manner. We are reaching out to those impacted to relay that we will not seek any payment from CHAPTER 7. Ethical Decision Making and Behavior——259 those individuals. †1 While Microsoft decided to drop the matter because of negative publicity, the fact remains that some employees received more than they were promised. Except for a clerical error, the company did nothing wrong and has a legal right to ask for restitution.One outplacement expert noted that just because Microsoft is a large company doesn’t mean it should have to automatically pay the cost for this mistake. â€Å"What if they’d put an extra three zeros on it? † he wondered. â€Å"Of course they’d expect to get it back. †2 If you were one of the laid-off workers overpaid by Microsoft, would you give the money back? Why or why not? Would your response be different if the amount of the overpayment was much bigger and the company much smaller? Notes 1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. 2. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. Sources Chan, S. P. 2009, May 6). Microsoft may not be done cutting jobs. The Seattle Times, p. A1. Microsoft will not seek overpaid severance. (2009, February 23). TECHWEB. I suspect that some groups will be frustrated by the amount of time it takes to answer the 12 questions. Not only is the model detailed, but discussing the problem with affected parties could take a series of meetings over a period of weeks and months. Complex issues such as determining who should clean up riv er pollution involve a variety of constituencies with very different agendas (government agencies, company representatives, citizens’ groups, conservation clubs).Some decision makers may also be put off by the model’s ambiguity. Nash admits that experts may define problems differently, that there may be exceptions to the decision, and that groups may use the procedure and never reach a conclusion. Finally, none of the questions use the ethical standards we identified in Chapter 5 or address the problem of implementing the choice once it is made. The Case Study Method The case study method is widely used for making medical diagnoses. At many hospitals, groups made up of doctors, nurses, and other staff members 260——PART III. Ethical Standards and Strategies eet regularly to talk about particularly troublesome cases. They may be unable to determine the exact nature of the illness or how to best treat a patient. Many of these deliberations involve ethical is sues such as whether to keep a terminally ill person on life support or how to respond to patients who demand unnecessary tests and procedures. The group solicits a variety of viewpoints and gathers as much information as possible. Members engage in analogical reasoning, comparing the specifics of a particular case with similar cases by describing the patient, her illness, and relationships with her family.Instead of focusing on how universal principles and standards can be applied in this situation, hospital personnel are more concerned with the details of the case itself. Participants balance competing perspectives and values, reach tentative conclusions, and look for similarities between the current case and earlier ones. Medical ethicist and communication scholar David H. Smith argues that the case-based approach is a powerful technique because it is based on narrative or story. 30 When decision makers describe cases, they are telling stories.These narratives say as much about t he storyteller as they do about the reality of the case. â€Å"Facts† are not objective truth but rather are reflections of what the narrator thinks is true and important. Stories knit these perceptions into a coherent whole. When discussing the fate of patients, it is not enough to know medical data. Hospital personnel need to learn about the patient’s history, the costs and benefits of various treatment options, and other factors such as the wishes of relatives and legal issu

Webers Law on Visual Perception

Crimes against Fundamental Laws of the State. Crimes against Public Order. 4) Crimes against Public Interest 5) Crimes against Related to Opium and other Prohibited Drugs 6) Crimes against Public Morals 7) Crimes committed by public Officers 8) Crimes against Persons 9) Crimes against Personal Liberty and security 10) Crimes against Property 1 1) Crimes against Chastity 12) Crimes against Civil Status of Persons 13) Crimes against Honor Theories explaining why crimes do occur: 1 . Classical Theory 2. Control Theory 3. Differential Association and Social Learning Theory 4. Societal Theory 5. Strain Theory 6.Psychological Theory 7. Subcultures Theory 8. Labeling Theory Crimes causing Factors in the Philippines 1. The belief that culprits of crimes or their powerful patrons can fix things. 2. The really powerful people who are able to circumvent the law. 3. The known corruptibility of some policemen, lawyers and Judges. 4. The high cost, long delays, personal inconvenience and embarrass ment entailed in many criminal cases which favors the offenders. 5. The discrepancy between some acts which the law defines as unlawful and which the people do not see in the same light. . The concept that hat which is public belongs to no me. 8. The adult criminals and Juvenile delinquents who see their models as great men with prestige and glamour and the glorification of criminals by the mass media. 9. The existence of firearms in the possession of some citizens. 10. The swift Justice out by dissidents in contrast to the uncertainty of legal Justice. CRIME is one of the most dreadful social illnesses. Violation of the law is not only confronted to adult behavior there are so called adult criminal and Juvenile delinquent as well.Delinquency is most often found in the following instances: ) Slum areas where diverse cultural standards flourish with little interaction. B) Families with parent's characterized by drunkenness or criminality, ineffective household management, economic di fficulties and low self- respect. C) Failure of children to experience real home. D) Broken homes where husbands and wives separate either temporarily or permanently. E) Lack of supervision of young people who roam the streets of most cities. Educational Implications of Crime Suggestions to the School Sector 1 .Resort all possible meaner to make the students strongly develop the sense of loneliness in the school setting. 2. Remind the students of the bad elements in society and the dangers associated with relating with such elements or even emulating them. 3. Maintain a personality profile of each student. 4. Impress among the students the values of honesty and integrity. 5. Take extra precaution labeling the students, particularly those who present problems in behavior. 6. See to it that school rules and regulations are strictly and Justly applied to every student, no matter what his status in life. . Identify and clarify the value of resonantly and accountability, whether the thin g in question is personal public or private property. 8. Inculcate among the students the sanctity of marriage and the family the indispensable role played by the family and in nation building. 9. Train the student to be alert at all times as to their respective and duties as citizens of the country. 10. Plan and implement co-curricular activities where the student can channel effectively and productively their extra energy.Drug Dependence Drug is defined as anything that frees one from a certain disease, either curing or reverting them to occur, but if you take ones it more than enough to cause him exhibit abnormal behavior or make him violate socially approved behavior. 1. Sedatives or Depressants or downers 2. Stimulants or Upper 3. Hallucinogens or Psychedelics 4. Narcotics Reason why person become drug abuser 1 . Socio-cultural deprivation 2. Faulty Model and Learning 3. Pathogenic family pattern 4. Identity crisis 5. Cultural correlates There are many social problems that exis t in our society and some says that it is hard to prevent too.If we cannot prevent these at least we need to lessen it. It is hard to prevent these social problems because anywhere, everywhere you turn your eyes there are lots of problems. Some people violate the norms of our society and if we ask them why did they do that, for sure the only answer that we get is they didn't what to do it but they have to because they badly needed it. One of the social problems in our society is a crime. One word but has a huge and bold meaning. It is very obvious if what is crime. From the world itself crime is one of the most dreadful social illnesses in our society.Many people committed crime and they were imprisoned but the government cannot prevent some people to commit crime. And these crimes are not only for adult ones, crimes do not choose the adult to do it but there are lots of crimes that the minor or the student commits. I think some student that committed crime, their parent's didn't mo ld their personality as a person or they have a broken family, their parent's characterized by drunkenness or criminality, ineffective household management, economic difficulties and low self- respect. Failure to experience real home and lack of supervision of young people who roam the streets of most cities.If this young people has didn't lack of supervision and don't have to commit a crime. If a student follows all the rules and regulations in school they don't need to commit crime. They should make the students strongly develop the sense of belongingness in the school setting. Remind the students of the bad elements in society and the dangers associated with relating with such elements or even emulating them. Impress among the students the values of honesty and integrity. Take extra precaution labeling the students, particularly those who present problems in behavior.See to it that school rules and regulations re strictly and Justly applied to every student, no matter what his st atus in life. Identify and clarify the value of personality and accountability, whether the thing in question is personal public or private property. Inculcate among the students the sanctity of marriage and the family the indispensable role played by the family and in nation building. Train the student to be alert at all times as to their respective and duties as citizens of the country. Plan and implement co-curricular activities where the student can channel effectively and productively their extra energy.If these suggestions to school sector will apply to the entire student I think there is no student who will commit crime. Yes many of students disobey the law like Jaywalking but still it is not a crime but it is a violation. These social problems really affect the education in our society because this social problem is one of the major problems in our society. If in school the student started to be good follower, even if he is not inside the school he will be a good follower to o. Every people need to have an education so that social problems will be lessen because it is impossible to prevent social problems.